Carolyn Bryant Donham Dies at 88; Her Words Doomed Emmett Till

She accused Emmett, 14, of accosting her, and her testimony led to the acquittals of her husband and his half brother in a murder that helped galvanize the civil rights movement.

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A black and white photograph showing Carolyn Bryant sitting in a courtroom and looking directly into the camera. Her husband sits to her left, looking at her and holding their two children on his lap.

Carolyn Bryant with her husband, Roy Bryant, and their children during his trial in 1955.

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Ed Clark/The LIFE Picture Collection, via Shutterstock

Margalit Fox

By Margalit Fox

Published April 27, 2023Updated May 2, 2023

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Only two people knew exactly what happened during the minute they were alone together in the general store in Money, Miss., on Aug. 24, 1955. One, Emmett Till, a Black teenager visiting from Chicago, died four days later, at 14, in a brutal murder that stands out even in America’s long history of racial injustice.

The other was Carolyn Bryant. She was the 21-year-old white proprietress of the store where, according to her testimony in the September 1955 trial of her husband and his half brother for the murder, Emmett made a sexually suggestive remark to her, grabbed her roughly by the waist and let loose a wolf whistle.

Now Mrs. Bryant, more recently known as Carolyn Bryant Donham, has died at 88. On Thursday, Megan LeBoeuf, the chief investigator for the Calcasieu Parish coroner’s office in Louisiana, sent a statement confirming the death, on Tuesday, in Westlake, a small city in southern Louisiana. Ms. LeBoeuf did not provide further information.

With Mrs. Bryant’s death, the truth of what happened that August day may now never be clear. More than half a century after the murder, Timothy B. Tyson, a Duke University historian who interviewed her, wrote that she had admitted to him that she had perjured herself on the witness stand to make Emmett’s conduct sound more threatening than it actually was — serving, in Dr. Tyson’s words, as “the mouthpiece of a monstrous lie.”

“She said with respect to the physical assault on her, or anything menacing or sexual, that that part isn’t true,” Dr. Tyson told “CBS This Morning” in 2017.

The publication of his book on the case, “The Blood of Emmett Till” (2017), prompted the Justice Department to reopen an investigation, in which it subpoenaed Dr. Tyson’s research materials. The federal authorities said Mrs. Bryant denied ever having changed her story, and they questioned Dr. Tyson’s claims, saying a tape recording of an interview that he had conducted with her, which he had provided to investigators, did not contain any sort of recantation. They closed the case in 2021 without bringing charges.

In an unpublished memoir that surfaced last year, Mrs. Bryant stood by her earlier description of events, though she said she had tried to discourage her husband from harming Emmett.

“He came in our store and put his hands on me with no provocation,” she wrote. “Do I think he should have been killed for doing that? Absolutely, unequivocally, no!”

The Till family said the account was rife with inaccuracies.

The murder of Emmett Till was a watershed in United States race relations. Coverage of the killing and its aftermath, including a widely disseminated photograph of Till’s brutalized body at his open-casket funeral, inspired anguish and outrage, helped propel the modern civil rights movement and ultimately contributed to the demise of Jim Crow.

A former beauty queen described in the news media as having been poor, unworldly and little educated in 1955, Mrs. Bryant was very much a product of her time and place, as her trial testimony, given under oath, makes plain.

Describing him with a racial slur — as recorded in a trial transcript, long thought to have been lost, that resurfaced in 2004 — she said Emmett had come into the store and “put his left hand on my waist, and he put his other hand over on the other side.” She added, “He said, ‘What’s the matter, baby? Can’t you take it?’”

Mrs. Bryant further testified that Emmett had made an obscene remark, which she refused to repeat in court, about his sexual prowess with white women. As news accounts reported afterward, her testimony carried the unmistakable implication that she feared being raped.

“I was just scared to death,” she testified.

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Emmett Till with his mother, later known as Mamie Till Mobley, in about 1950.

Credit...

Alamy

After deliberating for little more than an hour, the all-white, all-male jury acquitted her husband, Roy Bryant, and his half brother J.W. Milam. Mrs. Bryant, who testified for the defense, was not charged.

Secure in the knowledge that double jeopardy would attach, the two men admitted the killing the next year in a Look magazine article for which they were paid. Mr. Milam died in 1980, Mr. Bryant in 1994.

Though Mrs. Bryant had testified without the jury present, her description of Emmett’s behavior was reprised by courtroom spectators and members of the press. As a result, it has endured in public memory as a canonical narrative of the events of that August night — long believed in some quarters, long doubted in others.

At the Heart of the Case

The flashpoint of the Till case and its last living principal figure, Mrs. Bryant had long remained its central enigma. After the trial she disappeared from view, for decades refusing requests for interviews from the few journalists and historians who managed to find her.

By the time Dr. Tyson interviewed her, at her request, her memory of that long-ago night had dimmed greatly, leaving questions about the precise nature of her role in Till’s murder:

Was Mrs. Bryant an accidental catalyst to history, or was she a participant, however tangential, in a violent hate crime? What, if anything, did she tell her husband just after Till’s visit to the store?

Mrs. Bryant first came to renewed attention in 2004, when the Justice Department began a reinvestigation of the case in an attempt to secure belated indictments against others who may have been involved, including her. Then, as in 1955, according to news reports, she maintained that she had nothing to do with the crime.

No federal charges were filed as a result of the renewed inquiry, which was led by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In 2007, a Mississippi grand jury declined to indict Mrs. Bryant, then in her 70s, on a state charge of manslaughter in connection with the case.

And last year, a grand jury in Mississippi examining the case anew declined to indict her on charges of kidnapping or manslaughter. After hearing more than seven hours of testimony from investigators and witnesses with direct knowledge of the case, the panel said it had not found sufficient evidence to charge her.

But what has been unequivocal about her role from the beginning is that the abduction, torture and murder of Emmett Till were carried out to avenge her honor.

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Mrs. Bryant with her sons outside the store where she said Emmett Till had accosted her.

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Getty Images

Madge Carolyn Holloway was born on July 23, 1934, on a plantation near Cruger, Miss. Her father, who died when she was a teenager, worked as a plantation manager and prison guard. After his death her mother became a nurse, and the family moved to Indianola, Miss.

A petite, attractive, dark-haired young woman, Carolyn won two high school beauty pageants. In 1951, at 16, she left school to elope with Mr. Bryant, a 20-year-old Army infantryman she had met at a party two years before.

“According to other family members I’ve talked to, Carolyn was a little bit different than the rest of them,” Devery S. Anderson, the author of “Emmett Till: The Murder That Shocked the World and Propelled the Civil Rights Movement” (2015), said in an interview for this obituary in 2016. “They all married refined men — ‘gentlemen,’ as they refer to them — where Carolyn was attracted to the bad boys, of which Roy Bryant was one.”

Settling in Money, a tiny Delta town, the couple ran Bryant’s Grocery and Meat Market, which catered mainly to Black sharecroppers. By 1955 they had two sons, Roy Jr., 3, and Thomas Lamar, 2. The family lived in rooms at the rear of the store.

Emmett Till, known to friends and family as Bobo, arrived in Mississippi by train on Saturday, Aug. 20, or Sunday, Aug. 21, 1955 (accounts differ as to the precise date). By the 21st, he had settled in at the home of a great-uncle, Moses Wright, near Money.

On the evening of Wednesday, Aug. 24, Emmett drove with a group of local Black teenagers to the Bryants’ store. Among them were 18-year-old Ruthie Mae Crawford, who years later spoke of having been able to see Emmett through the store’s plate-glass window the whole time, and Simeon Wright, Till’s 12-year-old cousin.

Emmett went into the store to buy a small item, most likely two cents’ worth of bubble gum.

Mr. Bryant, who moonlighted as a trucker, was out of town, hauling a load of shrimp from New Orleans to Texas. Mrs. Bryant was tending the counter; she testified in court that her sister-in-law Juanita Milam, J.W.’s wife, was in the living quarters, looking after the Bryant boys and her own two children.

By most accounts, Emmett was alone with Mrs. Bryant for not much more than a minute before one of his companions — in Simeon Wright’s recollection, it was he — concerned that Emmett would not know how to comport himself around a Southern white woman, went in to fetch him.

“While I was in the store, Bobo did nothing inappropriate,” Mr. Wright recounted in “Simeon’s Story,” his 2010 memoir of the case. “Bobo didn’t ask her for a date or call her ‘baby.’ There was no lecherous conversation between them.”

But whatever transpired during the minute that Emmett was alone with Mrs. Bryant precipitated all that followed.

The Husband Is Told

On Saturday, Aug. 27, Mr. Bryant returned home. It has generally been assumed that Mrs. Bryant told him about the episode in the store soon afterward. In fact, Mr. Anderson said, his research strongly suggested that she and her sister-in-law chose to suppress the incident altogether.

“She and Juanita decided not to tell their husbands, because they knew they would go out and try to hurt him,” he said. “Some people, especially when they write me, they’ll say, ‘It was all her fault, because she told Roy.’ But she didn’t tell him.”

Someone did, though. As the African American surgeon and civil rights leader T.R.M. Howard concluded from his own investigation in 1955, that person was most likely a local Black field hand. Several field hands had been playing checkers on the porch of the Bryants’ store that evening; one of them apparently told Mr. Bryant in an attempt to curry favor.

“One source said he got 50 cents’ worth of store credit for it,” Mr. Anderson said.

On Sunday, Aug. 28, a few hours after midnight, Mr. Bryant and Mr. Milam drove to the home of Till’s great-uncle Moses Wright. Holding Mr. Wright at gunpoint, they demanded Till.

Mr. Wright later testified that as they left his house with Emmett in tow, one of the men asked someone outside whether the youth was “the right one.” From a waiting car or truck, a light voice — possibly a woman’s, Mr. Wright said — replied that he was.

Whether the voice belonged to Mrs. Bryant remains an open question. She always denied having been along when Emmett was abducted.

“I have a hard time thinking she wasn’t in the car,” Mr. Anderson said. “I think she was, but I don’t think she was there willingly.”

Image

J.W. Milam, left, and his half brother Roy Bryant were acquitted in the Till murder largely on the testimony of Mr. Bryant’s wife, Carolyn, right.

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Associated Press

What emerged in the 2004 F.B.I. investigation was that before Roy Bryant went to Mr. Wright’s house, he had asked his wife to look at two other Black youths and tell him whether either was the one who had flirted with her. Both times she said no.

After taking Emmett from his great-uncle’s, Mr. Bryant and Mr. Milam drove him to the Bryants’ store. It is beyond dispute that they presented him to Mrs. Bryant there. She said afterward that she had replied that he, too, was the wrong person.

“She did tell the defense attorneys a couple days after the murder, ‘They brought the Negro boy to the store and he was scared, but he wasn’t harmed, and I told him that he wasn’t the right one,’” Mr. Anderson said in the 2016 interview.

Mr. Anderson came to believe, he said, that Mrs. Bryant actually saw Emmett in both places: first outside his great-uncle’s house, where she identified him, and later in the store, where she had second thoughts.

“She was in the car, and identified him as the right one, not knowing what they were going to do — that they were going to kidnap him,” he said. “And it’s possible that by the time they got to the store and dropped her off, she said: ‘Oh, no. He’s not the right one after all.’”

Murder in a Barn

Leaving Mrs. Bryant at the store, Mr. Bryant and Mr. Milam, accompanied by several other men — white associates, as well as Black employees conscripted under duress — drove Emmett toward Drew, Miss., about 30 miles away. (No one else in the truck was ever charged in connection with the crime.)

Just outside Drew, on a plantation managed by Leslie Milam, J.W.’s brother, they beat Emmett savagely. Willie Reed, a local Black teenager who happened to be passing by on foot, later told Dr. Howard, the civil-rights leader, that he could hear Emmett crying, “Mama, please save me” from inside a barn on the property.

One of the group, possibly J.W. Milam, shot Emmett in the head. Driving to the Tallahatchie River nearby, the men used barbed wire to lace a cotton-gin fan around Till’s neck and dumped his body in the water.

Later that Sunday, Roy Bryant was arrested in connection with Till’s disappearance. J.W. Milam was arrested the next day. (In 2022, a team of researchers, including relatives of Emmett Till, discovered in the basement of a Greenwood, Miss., courthouse a sheriff’s warrant for Mrs. Bryant’s arrest as well, also charging her in Till’s kidnapping. The warrant, dated Aug. 29, was never served.)

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The bridge from which Till’s body could have been dumped.

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Robert Rausch for The New York Times

On Aug. 30, Mrs. Bryant gave her first statement to her husband’s lawyers. At that point, Till’s body had not been discovered, and the men were suspected only of kidnapping. (Both had told law-enforcement authorities that they had taken Emmett from his great-uncle’s home but released him alive.)

As reported in Dr. Tyson’s book, Mrs. Bryant’s initial statement was comparatively benign. She “charged only that Emmett had ‘insulted’ her, not grabbed her, and certainly not attempted to rape her.”

The killers clearly never expected Emmett to be found: The fan to which they had lashed him weighed some 70 pounds. But on Aug. 31, Till’s body was recovered from the river. Mr. Bryant and Mr. Milam were charged with his murder.

In a second interview with defense lawyers, on Sept. 2 — recorded in a defense memo uncovered during the F.B.I. investigation of 2004 — Mrs. Bryant’s statement had assumed more dramatic form. But it nonetheless described a milder scenario than the one she would recount in court:

“When I went to take money he grabbed my hand and said, ‘How about a date?’” she said in that statement. “And I walked away from him and he said, ‘What’s the matter, baby, can’t you take it?’ He went out the door and said ‘Goodbye’ and I went out to car and got pistol and when I came back he whistled at me.”

By the time Mrs. Bryant gave the second statement, her husband’s family had taken her to live with them and were, she said, deliberately isolating her.

“They were keeping me from everybody,” she told Dr. Tyson. “They were afraid that I might say something they didn’t want me to say or I might reveal something they didn’t want revealed.”

The trial of Roy Bryant and J.W. Milam for the murder of Emmett Louis Till opened in Sumner, Miss., on Monday, Sept. 19, with the world press in attendance.

Taking the Stand

On Sept. 22, Mrs. Bryant took the witness stand. She testified to the wolf whistle, described in her statement of Sept. 2. But now she also testified to Till’s “strong grip” when he grabbed her hand, his pursuit of her through the store, his catching of her around the waist and his use of a sexual obscenity — elements not present in either of her pretrial statements.

The defense team was eager for the jury to hear Mrs. Bryant’s vivid account of what happened in the store — a narrative that, by the prevailing mores of midcentury Mississippi, might well have been considered ample justification for his murder.

But the presiding judge, Curtis M. Swango Jr., whose conduct of the trial was almost universally praised by Northern and Southern observers alike, ruled that events in the store should not be brought to bear on the essential question of the defendants’ guilt. In consequence, the jury was absent from the courtroom during Mrs. Bryant’s testimony.

On Friday, Sept. 23, at 2:34 p.m., the case went to the jury. Returning at 3:42, they pronounced the defendants not guilty of Till’s murder. They would have reached their verdict even sooner, a juror said afterward, had they not taken a break to drink soda pop.

In November 1955, a Mississippi grand jury declined to indict Mr. Bryant and Mr. Milam for Till’s kidnapping.

In December, Rosa Parks declined to give up her seat to a white passenger on a Montgomery, Ala., city bus, an act that touched off the historic bus boycott there. In making her steadfast refusal, she said afterward, she thought consciously of Emmett Till.

After the trial, the Bryants’ store was boycotted by local Black residents and closed within weeks; Roy Bryant later trained as a welder, an occupation that eventually rendered him legally blind. The Bryants left the state in the late 1950s, living in Louisiana and Texas before returning to Mississippi in 1973. There, they ran a grocery store.

Mrs. Bryant divorced her husband in 1975, citing in court papers “habitual drunkenness” and “habitual cruel and inhuman treatment.” She married at least twice more: She was widowed by one husband, Griffin Chandler, and divorced from another, David Donham.

By all accounts, Mrs. Bryant, who resided for many years in Greenville, Miss., about 60 miles southwest of Money, lived a life of self-imposed circumscription and did not work outside the home.

“She’s received threats, I know,” Mr. Anderson said. “She’s afraid to be out, even at family reunions and things like that. She’s avoided most social situations because she’s afraid either of people asking her about the case, or not knowing if somebody is going to threaten her.”

In the late 1980s, Mrs. Bryant studied part time at what is now Mississippi Delta Community College in Moorhead but did not earn a degree. In later years, she lived in Raleigh, N.C.

In 2008, after maintaining her long silence, Mrs. Bryant sought out Dr. Tyson: She had read and liked his 2004 book, “Blood Done Sign My Name,” a nonfiction account of the murder of a young Black man by whites in North Carolina in 1970. She wanted, she told him, to explain her side of the story.

Interviewed by Dr. Tyson at her home in Raleigh, Mrs. Bryant admitted that she had lied on the stand.

“About her testimony that Till had grabbed her around the waist and uttered obscenities,” Dr. Tyson wrote in 2017, “she now told me, ‘That part’s not true.’”

As for the rest of what transpired that night, the precise narrative had, with the passage of time, become unclear even to her.

“I want to tell you,” she told Dr. Tyson in their 2008 interview. “Honestly, I just don’t remember. It was 50 years ago.”

A list of her survivors was not immediately available. A son, Roy Bryant Jr., died in 1995; another son, Frank Bryant, died in 2010. Mrs. Bryant’s sister-in-law Juanita Milam died in 2014.

Emmett Till’s mother, Mamie Till Mobley, who to the end of her life publicly sought justice for her son, died in 2003.

‘She Was Frightened’

In the end, Mrs. Bryant’s part in the Till case will remain ambiguous — in some aspects more benign than supposed, in others less so.

As Dr. Tyson wrote in his 2017 book, “The preponderance of evidence does tell us that almost from the moment of the incident between her and Emmett at the store on August 24, she was frightened of its escalating consequences and probably sought to avoid them.”

In her unpublished memoir, “More Than a Wolf Whistle: The Story of Carolyn Bryant Donham,” which Mrs. Bryant wrote, in old age, with her daughter-in-law Marsha Bryant, she continued to maintain that Emmett had whistled at her. (Mrs. Bryant’s manuscript, originally embargoed at her request until 2038, was in the archives of the Southern Historical Collection at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, before it came to light.)

In “Simeon’s Story,” Till’s cousin Mr. Wright also recalled hearing him whistle outside the store.

However, as Mrs. Bryant told Dr. Tyson in 2008, “Nothing that boy did could ever justify what happened to him.”

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The site of the Bryant’s general store in Money, Miss., is marked as a historic one.

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Robert Rausch for The New York Times

What Emmett may actually have done inside the Bryants’ store that day, Dr. Tyson’s book reports — drawing on news media interviews decades later with Mr. Wright and their companion Ruthie Mae Crawford (later Ruthie Mae Crawford Jackson) — was break a Jim Crow taboo of which he was almost certainly unaware:

Instead of placing the money for his purchase onto the store counter, they said, young Emmett Till put his two cents directly into Mrs. Bryant’s hand, in the process touching her pale white skin.

Alex Traub contributed reporting.

Margalit Fox is a former senior writer on the obituaries desk at The Times. She was previously an editor at the Book Review. She has written the send-offs of some of the best-known cultural figures of our era, including Betty Friedan, Maya Angelou and Seamus Heaney. @margalitfox

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Death of Emmett Till" redirects here. For the song by Bob Dylan, see The Death of Emmett Till.

Emmett Till

Emmett Till.jpg

Till in a photograph taken by his mother on Christmas Day, 1954

Born

Emmett Louis Till

July 25, 1941

Chicago, Illinois, U.S.

Died

August 28, 1955 (aged 14)

Drew, Mississippi, U.S.[1]

Cause of death

Lynching (bullet wound and mutilation)

Resting place

Burr Oak Cemetery, Alsip, Illinois

Education

James McCosh Elementary School

Parents

- Mamie Carthan Till-Mobley

- Louis Till

Awards

Congressional Gold Medal (posthumous, 2022)

show

Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi

Emmett Louis Till (July 25, 1941 – August 28, 1955) was an African American boy who was abducted, tortured, and lynched in Mississippi in 1955 at the age of 14, after being accused of offending a white woman, Carolyn Bryant, in her family's grocery store. The brutality of his murder and the acquittal of his killers drew attention to the long history of violent persecution of African Americans in the United States. Till posthumously became an icon of the civil rights movement.[2]

Till was born and raised in Chicago, Illinois. During summer vacation in August 1955, he was visiting relatives near Money, Mississippi, in the Mississippi Delta region. He spoke to 21-year-old Carolyn Bryant, the white, married proprietor of a small grocery store there. Although what happened at the store is a matter of dispute, Till was accused of flirting with, touching, or whistling at Bryant. Till's interaction with Bryant, perhaps unwittingly, violated the unwritten code of behavior for a black male interacting with a white female in the Jim Crow-era South.[3] Several nights after the incident in the store, Bryant's husband Roy and his half-brother J. W. Milam, who were armed, went to Till's great-uncle's house and abducted Emmett. They took him away then beat and mutilated him before shooting him in the head and sinking his body in the Tallahatchie River. Three days later, the boy's mutilated and bloated body was discovered and retrieved from the river.

Till's body was returned to Chicago, where his mother insisted on a public funeral service with an open casket, which was held at Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ.[4] It was later said that "The open-coffin funeral held by Mamie Till Bradley[a] exposed the world to more than her son Emmett Till's bloated, mutilated body. Her decision focused attention on not only American racism and the barbarism of lynching but also the limitations and vulnerabilities of American democracy".[5] Tens of thousands attended his funeral or viewed his open casket, and images of his mutilated body were published in black-oriented magazines and newspapers, rallying popular black support and white sympathy across the U.S. Intense scrutiny was brought to bear on the lack of black civil rights in Mississippi, with newspapers around the U.S. critical of the state. Although local newspapers and law enforcement officials initially decried the violence against Till and called for justice, they responded to national criticism by defending Mississippians, temporarily giving support to the killers.

In September 1955, an all-white jury found Bryant and Milam not guilty of Till's murder. Protected against double jeopardy, the two men publicly admitted in a 1956 interview with Look magazine that they had tortured and murdered the boy, selling the story of how they did it for $4,000 (equivalent to $43,000 in 2022).[6] Till's murder was seen as a catalyst for the next phase of the civil rights movement. In December 1955, the Montgomery bus boycott began in Alabama and lasted more than a year, resulting eventually in a U.S. Supreme Court ruling that segregated buses were unconstitutional. According to historians, events surrounding Till's life and death continue to resonate.

An Emmett Till Memorial Commission was established in the early 21st century. The Sumner County Courthouse was restored and includes the Emmett Till Interpretive Center. Fifty-one sites in the Mississippi Delta are memorialized as associated with Till. The Emmett Till Antilynching Act, an American law which makes lynching a federal hate crime, was signed into law on March 29, 2022, by President Joe Biden.[7]

Early childhood

Emmett Till was born in 1941 in Chicago; he was the son of Mamie Carthan (1921–2003) and Louis Till (1922–1945). Emmett's mother Mamie was born in the small Delta town of Webb, Mississippi. The Delta region encompasses the large, multi-county area of northwestern Mississippi in the watershed of the Yazoo and Mississippi rivers. When Carthan was two years old, her family moved to Argo, Illinois, near Chicago, as part of the Great Migration of rural black families out of the South to the North to escape violence, lack of opportunity and unequal treatment under the law.[8] Argo received so many Southern migrants that it was named "Little Mississippi"; Carthan's mother's home was often used by other recent migrants as a way station while they were trying to find jobs and housing.[9]

Mississippi was the poorest state in the U.S. in the 1950s, and the Delta counties were some of the poorest in Mississippi.[9] Mamie Carthan was born in Tallahatchie County, where the average income per white household in 1949 was $690 (equivalent to $8,500 in 2022). For black families, the figure was $462 (equivalent to $5,700 in 2022).[10] In the rural areas, economic opportunities for blacks were almost nonexistent. They were mostly sharecroppers who lived on land owned by whites. Blacks had essentially been disenfranchised and excluded from voting and the political system since 1890 when the white-dominated legislature passed a new constitution that raised barriers to voter registration. Whites had also passed ordinances establishing racial segregation and Jim Crow laws.

Mamie largely raised Emmett with her mother; she and Louis Till separated in 1942 after she discovered that he had been unfaithful. Louis later assaulted her, choking her to unconsciousness, to which she responded by throwing scalding water at him.[11] For violating court orders to stay away from Mamie, Louis Till was forced by a judge in 1943 to choose between jail or enlisting in the U.S. Army. In 1945, a few weeks before his son's fourth birthday, he was court-martialed and executed in Italy for the murder of an Italian woman and the rape of two others.[12][13]

At the age of six, Emmett contracted polio, which left him with a persistent stutter.[14] Mamie and Emmett moved to Detroit, where she met and married "Pink" Bradley in 1951. Emmett preferred living in Chicago, so he returned there to live with his grandmother; his mother and stepfather rejoined him later that year. After the marriage dissolved in 1952, "Pink" Bradley returned alone to Detroit.[15]

A red brick rowhouse

The Chicago two-flat at 6427 S. St. Lawrence Avenue where Emmett Till lived with his mother in mid-1955[16]

Mamie Till Bradley and Emmett lived together in a busy neighborhood in Chicago's South Side near distant relatives. She began working as a civilian clerk for the U.S. Air Force for a better salary. She recalled that Emmett was industrious enough to help with chores at home, although he sometimes got distracted. His mother remembered that he did not know his own limitations at times. Following the couple's separation, Bradley visited Mamie and began threatening her. At eleven years old, Emmett, with a butcher knife in hand, told Bradley he would kill him if the man did not leave.[17] Usually, however, Emmett was happy. He and his cousins and friends pulled pranks on each other (Emmett once took advantage of an extended car ride when his friend fell asleep and placed the friend's underwear on his head), and they also spent their free time in pickup baseball games. He was a smart dresser,[18] and was often the center of attention among his peers.[19]

Plans to visit relatives in Mississippi

In 1955, Mamie Till Bradley's uncle, 64-year-old Mose Wright, visited her and Emmett in Chicago during the summer and told Emmett stories about living in the Mississippi Delta. Emmett wanted to see for himself. Wright planned to accompany Till with a cousin, Wheeler Parker; another cousin, Curtis Jones, would join them soon after. Wright was a sharecropper and part-time minister who was often called "Preacher".[20] He lived in Money, Mississippi, a small town in the Delta that consisted of three stores, a school, a post office, a cotton gin, and a few hundred residents, 8 miles (13 km) north of Greenwood. Before Emmett departed for the Delta, his mother cautioned him that Chicago and Mississippi were two different worlds, and he should know how to behave in front of whites in the South.[21] He assured her he understood.[22]

Statistics on lynchings began to be collected in 1882. Since that time, more than 500 African Americans have been killed by extrajudicial violence in Mississippi alone, and more than 3,000 across the South.[23] Most of the incidents took place between 1876 and 1930; though far less common by the mid-1950s, these racially motivated murders still occurred. Throughout the South, interracial relationships were prohibited as a means to maintain white supremacy.[24] Even the suggestion of sexual contact between black men and white women could carry severe penalties for black men. A resurgence of the enforcement of such Jim Crow laws was evident following World War II, when African-American veterans started pressing for equal rights in the South.[25]

Racial tensions increased after the United States Supreme Court's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education to end segregation in public education, which it ruled unconstitutional. Many segregationists believed the ruling would lead to interracial dating and marriage. Whites strongly resisted the court's ruling; one Virginia county closed all its public schools to prevent integration. Other jurisdictions simply ignored the ruling. In other ways, whites used stronger measures to keep blacks politically disenfranchised, which they had been since the turn of the century. Segregation in the South was used to constrain blacks forcefully from any semblance of social equality.[26]

A week before Till arrived in Mississippi, a black activist named Lamar Smith was shot and killed in front of the county courthouse in Brookhaven for political organizing. Three white suspects were arrested, but they were soon released.[27]

Encounter between Till and Carolyn Bryant

The remains of Bryant's Grocery and Meat Market in 2009

Bryant's Grocery Mississippi Freedom Trail Marker, 2018

Till arrived at the home of Mose and Elizabeth Wright in Money, Mississippi, on August 21, 1955. On the evening of August 24, Till and several young relatives and neighbors were driven by his cousin Maurice Wright to Bryant's Grocery and Meat Market to buy candy. Till's companions were children of sharecroppers and had been picking cotton all day. The market mostly served the local sharecropper population and was owned by a white couple, 24-year-old Roy Bryant and his 21-year-old wife Carolyn.[28] Carolyn was alone in the front of the store that day; her sister-in-law Juanita Milam was in the rear of the store watching children. A number of other local youths were playing or watching a checkers game on a board the Bryants had set up outside the store.

The facts of what took place in the store are still disputed. Journalist William Bradford Huie reported that Till showed the youths outside the store a photograph of a white girl in his wallet, and bragged that she was his girlfriend.[29] Till's cousin Curtis Jones said the photograph was of an integrated class at the school Till attended in Chicago.[b] According to Huie and Jones, one or more of the local boys then dared Till to speak to Bryant.[28] However, in his 2009 book, Till's cousin Simeon Wright, who was present, disputed the accounts of Huie and Jones. According to Wright, Till did not have a photo of a white girl, and no one dared him to flirt with Bryant.[32] Speaking in 2015, Wright said: "We didn't dare him to go to the store—the white folk said that. They said that he had pictures of his white girlfriend. There were no pictures. They never talked to me. They never interviewed me."[33] The FBI report completed in 2006 notes: "[Curtis] Jones recanted his 1955 statements prior to his death and apologized to Mamie Till-Mobley".[34][c]

According to Simeon Wright and Wheeler Parker,[38] Till wolf-whistled at Bryant. Wright said "I think [Emmett] wanted to get a laugh out of us or something," adding, "He was always joking around, and it was hard to tell when he was serious." Wright stated that following the whistle he became immediately alarmed. "Well, it scared us half to death," Wright recalled. "You know, we were almost in shock. We couldn't get out of there fast enough, because we had never heard of anything like that before. A black boy whistling at a white woman? In Mississippi? No." Wright stated "The Ku Klux Klan and night riders were part of our daily lives".[32][39] Following his disappearance, a newspaper account stated that Till sometimes whistled to alleviate his stuttering.[40] His speech was sometimes unclear; his mother said he had particular difficulty with pronouncing "b" sounds, and he may have whistled to overcome problems asking for bubble gum.[41][42][43] She said that, to help with his articulation, she taught Till how to whistle softly to himself before pronouncing his words.[42]

During the murder trial,[note 1] Bryant testified that Till grabbed her hand while she was stocking candy and said, "How about a date, baby?"[44][29] She said that after she freed herself from his grasp, the young man followed her to the cash register,[44] grabbed her waist and said, "What's the matter baby, can't you take it?"[44][note 2] Bryant said she freed herself, and Till said, "You needn't be afraid of me, baby",[44] used "one 'unprintable' word"[44] and said "I've been with white women before."[44][45] Bryant also alleged that one of Till's companions came into the store, grabbed him by the arm, and ordered him to leave.[44] According to historian Timothy Tyson, Bryant admitted to him in a 2008 interview that her testimony during the trial that Till had made verbal and physical advances was false.[46][47][48] Bryant had testified Till grabbed her waist and uttered obscenities but later told Tyson "that part's not true".[49] As for the rest of what happened, the 72-year-old stated she could not remember.[50] Bryant is quoted by Tyson as saying "Nothing that boy did could ever justify what happened to him".[51] However, the tape recordings that Tyson made of the interviews with Bryant do not contain Bryant saying this. In addition, Bryant's daughter-in-law, who was present during Tyson's interviews, says that Bryant never said it.[52][53]

Decades later, Simeon Wright also challenged the account given by Carolyn Bryant at the trial.[54] Wright claims he entered the store "less than a minute" after Till was left inside alone with Bryant,[54] and he saw no inappropriate behavior and heard "no lecherous conversation".[54] Wright said Till "paid for his items and we left the store together".[54] In their 2006 investigation of the cold case, the FBI noted that a second anonymous source, who was confirmed to have been in the store at the same time as Till and his cousin, supported Wright's account.[55]

Author Devery Anderson writes that in an interview with the defense's attorneys, Bryant told a version of the initial encounter that included Till grabbing her hand and asking her for a date, but not Till approaching her and grabbing her waist, mentioning past relationships with white women, or having to be dragged unwillingly out of the store by another boy. Anderson further notes that many remarks prior to Till's kidnapping made by those involved indicate that it was his remarks to Bryant that angered his killers, rather than any alleged physical harassment. For instance, Mose Wright (a witness to the kidnapping) said that the kidnappers mentioned only "talk" at the store, and Sheriff George Smith only spoke of the arrested killers accusing Till of "ugly remarks". Anderson suggests that this evidence taken together implies that the more extreme details of Bryant's story were invented after the fact as part of the defense's legal strategy.[56]

After Wright and Till left the store, Bryant went outside to retrieve a pistol from underneath the seat of a car. Till and his companions saw her do this and left immediately.[45] It was acknowledged that Till whistled while Bryant was going to her car.[55] However, one witness, Roosevelt Crawford, maintained that Till's whistle was directed not at Bryant, but at the checkers game that was taking place outside the store.[57]

Carolyn's husband Roy Bryant was on an extended trip hauling shrimp to Texas and did not return home until August 27.[58] Historian Timothy Tyson said an investigation by civil rights activists concluded Carolyn Bryant did not initially tell her husband Roy Bryant about the encounter with Till, and that Roy was told by a person who frequented their store.[59] Roy was reportedly angry at his wife for not telling him. Carolyn Bryant told the FBI she did not tell her husband because she feared he would assault Till.[60]

Lynching

Lynching of Emmett Till

Part of racism against African Americans

Sunflower County Mississippi Incorporated and Unincorporated areas Drew Highlighted.svg

Location of Drew within Sunflower County, Mississippi

Location

Drew, Mississippi, U.S.

Date

August 28, 1955

Target

Emmett Louis Till

Attack type

Lynching, kidnapping, hate crime, torture murder, child murder, shooting, mutilation, racial terrorism[61]

Victim

Emmett Louis Till

Perpetrators

Roy Bryant and John William Milam

Motive

Retaliation for allegedly offending a white woman, anti-black racism

Accused

Carolyn Bryant[d][62]

Verdict

Roy Bryant and Milam:

Not guilty[e]

Charges

Roy Bryant and Milam:

Murder

When Roy Bryant was informed of what had happened, he aggressively questioned several young black men who entered the store. That evening, Bryant, with a black man named J. W. Washington, approached a black teenager walking along a road. Bryant ordered Washington to seize the boy, put him in the back of a pickup truck, and took him to be identified by a companion of Carolyn's who had witnessed the episode with Till. Friends or parents vouched for the boy in Bryant's store, and Carolyn's companion denied that the boy Bryant and Washington seized was the one who had accosted her. Somehow, Bryant learned that the boy in the incident was from Chicago and was staying with Mose Wright.[note 3] Several witnesses overheard Bryant and his 36-year-old half-brother, John William "J. W." Milam, discussing taking Till from his house.[63]

In the early morning hours of August 28, 1955, sometime between 2 and 3:30 a.m., Bryant and Milam drove to Mose Wright's house. Milam was armed with a pistol and a flashlight. He asked Wright if he had three boys in the house from Chicago. Till was sharing a bed with another cousin and there were a total of eight people in the cabin.[35]: 26 [31]: 107  Milam asked Wright to take them to "the nigger who did the talking". Till's great-aunt offered the men money, but Milam refused as he rushed Emmett to put on his clothes. Mose Wright informed the men that Till was from up north and did not know any better. Milam reportedly then asked, "How old are you, preacher?" to which Wright responded "64". Milam threatened that if Wright told anybody he would not live to see 65. The men marched Till out to the truck. Wright said he heard them ask someone in the car if this was the boy, and heard someone say "yes". When asked if the voice was that of a man or a woman Wright said "it seemed like it was a lighter voice than a man's".[64] In a 1956 interview with Look magazine, in which they confessed to the killing, Bryant and Milam said they would have brought Till by the store in order to have Carolyn identify him, but stated they did not do so because they said Till admitted to being the one who had talked to her.[29]

They tied up Till in the back of a green pickup truck and drove toward Money, Mississippi. According to some witnesses, they took Till back to Bryant's Groceries and recruited two black men. The men then drove to a barn in Drew. They pistol-whipped him on the way and reportedly knocked him unconscious. Willie Reed, who was 18 years old at the time, saw the truck passing by. Reed recalled seeing two white men in the front seat, and "two black males" in the back.[65] Some have speculated that the two black men worked for Milam and were forced to help with the beating, although they later denied being present.[66][67]

Willie Reed said that while walking home, he heard the beating and crying from the barn. He told a neighbor and they both walked back up the road to a water well near the barn, where they were approached by Milam. Milam asked if they heard anything. Reed responded "No". Others passed by the shed and heard yelling. A local neighbor also spotted "Too Tight" (Leroy Collins) at the back of the barn washing blood off the truck and noticed Till's boot. Milam explained he had killed a deer and that the boot belonged to him.[citation needed]

Some have claimed that Till was shot and tossed over the Black Bayou Bridge in Glendora, Mississippi, near the Tallahatchie River.[68] The group drove back to Roy Bryant's home in Money, where they reportedly burned Emmett's clothes.

Well, what else could we do? He was hopeless. I'm no bully; I never hurt a nigger in my life. I like niggers—in their place—I know how to work 'em. But I just decided it was time a few people got put on notice. As long as I live and can do anything about it, niggers are gonna stay in their place. Niggers ain't gonna vote where I live. If they did, they'd control the government. They ain't gonna go to school with my kids. And when a nigger gets close to mentioning sex with a white woman, he's tired o' livin'. I'm likely to kill him. Me and my folks fought for this country, and we got some rights. I stood there in that shed and listened to that nigger throw that poison at me, and I just made up my mind. 'Chicago boy,' I said, 'I'm tired of 'em sending your kind down here to stir up trouble. Goddam you, I'm going to make an example of you—just so everybody can know how me and my folks stand.'

—J. W. Milam, Look magazine, 1956[29]

In an interview with William Bradford Huie that was published in Look magazine in 1956, Bryant and Milam said that they intended to beat Till and throw him off an embankment into the river to frighten him. They told Huie that while they were beating Till, he called them bastards, declared he was as good as they and said that he had sexual encounters with white women. They put Till in the back of their truck, and drove to a cotton gin to take a 70-pound (32 kg) fan—the only time they admitted to being worried, thinking that by this time in early daylight they would be spotted and accused of stealing—and drove for several miles along the river looking for a place to dispose of Till. They shot him by the river and weighted his body with the fan.[29][note 4]

Mose Wright stayed on his front porch for twenty minutes waiting for Till to return. He did not go back to bed. He and another man went into Money, got gasoline, and drove around trying to find Till. Unsuccessful, they returned home by 8:00 am.[69] After hearing from Wright that he would not call the police because he feared for his life, Curtis Jones placed a call to the Leflore County sheriff, and another to his mother in Chicago. Distraught, she called Emmett's mother Mamie Till Bradley.[70] Wright and his wife Elizabeth drove to Sumner, where Elizabeth's brother contacted the sheriff.[71]

Bryant and Milam were questioned by Leflore County sheriff George Smith. They admitted they had taken the boy from his great-uncle's yard, but claimed they had released him the same night in front of Bryant's store. Bryant and Milam were arrested for kidnapping.[72] Word got out that Till was missing, and soon Medgar Evers, Mississippi state field secretary for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and Amzie Moore, head of the NAACP's Bolivar County chapter, became involved. They disguised themselves as cotton pickers and went into the cotton fields in search of any information that might help find Till.[73]

Three days after his abduction and murder, Till's swollen and disfigured body was found by two boys who were fishing in the Tallahatchie River. His head was very badly mutilated, he had been shot above the right ear, an eye was dislodged from the socket, there was evidence that he had been beaten on the back and the hips, and his body weighted by a fan blade, which was fastened around his neck with barbed wire. He was nude, but wearing a silver ring with the initials "L. T." and "May 25, 1943" carved in it.[74][note 5] His face was unrecognizable due to trauma and having been submerged in water. Mose Wright was called to the river to identify Till. The silver ring that Till was wearing was removed, returned to Wright, and next passed on to the district attorney as evidence.

Funeral and reaction

Mamie Till at Emmett's funeral

Although lynchings and racially motivated murders had occurred throughout the South for decades, the circumstances surrounding Till's murder and the timing acted as a catalyst to attract national attention to the case of a 14-year-old boy who had allegedly been killed for breaching a social caste system. Till's murder aroused feelings about segregation, law enforcement, relations between the North and South, the social status quo in Mississippi, the activities of the NAACP and the White Citizens' Councils, and the Cold War, all of which were played out in a drama staged in newspapers all over the U.S. and abroad.[75]

After Till went missing, a three-paragraph story was printed in The Greenwood Commonwealth and quickly picked up by other Mississippi newspapers. They reported on his death when the body was found. The next day, when a picture of him his mother had taken the previous Christmas showing them smiling together appeared in the Jackson Daily News and Vicksburg Evening Post, editorials and letters to the editor were printed expressing shame at the people who had caused Till's death. One read, "Now is the time for every citizen who loves the state of Mississippi to 'Stand up and be counted' before hoodlum white trash brings us to destruction." The letter said that Negroes were not the downfall of Mississippi society, but whites like those in White Citizens' Councils that condoned violence.[76]

Till's body was clothed, packed in lime, placed into a pine coffin, and prepared for burial. It may have been embalmed while in Mississippi. Mamie Till Bradley demanded that the body be sent to Chicago; she later said that she worked to halt an immediate burial in Mississippi and called several local and state authorities in Illinois and Mississippi to make sure that her son was returned to Chicago.[77] A doctor did not examine Till post-mortem.[78]

Mississippi's governor, Hugh L. White, deplored the murder, asserting that local authorities should pursue a "vigorous prosecution". He sent a telegram to the national offices of the NAACP, promising a full investigation and assuring them "Mississippi does not condone such conduct". Delta residents, both black and white, also distanced themselves from Till's murder, finding the circumstances abhorrent. Local newspaper editorials denounced the murderers without question.[45][79] Leflore County Deputy Sheriff John Cothran stated, "The white people around here feel pretty mad about the way that poor little boy was treated, and they won't stand for this."[80]

Soon, however, discourse about Till's murder became more complex. Robert B. Patterson, executive secretary of the segregationist White Citizens' Council, used Till's death to claim that racial segregation policies were to provide for blacks' safety and that their efforts were being neutralized by the NAACP. In response, NAACP executive secretary Roy Wilkins characterized the incident as a lynching and said that Mississippi was trying to maintain white supremacy through murder. He said, "there is in the entire state no restraining influence of decency, not in the state capital, among the daily newspapers, the clergy, nor any segment of the so-called better citizens."[81] Mamie Till Bradley told a reporter that she would seek legal aid to help law enforcement find her son's killers and that the State of Mississippi should share the financial responsibility. She was misquoted; it was reported as "Mississippi is going to pay for this."[82]

Till's mother looks over his mutilated corpse. With her is her fiancé Gene Mobley. Mamie Till had insisted on an open-casket funeral. Images of Till's body, printed in The Chicago Defender and Jet magazine, made international news and directed attention to the lack of rights of blacks in the U.S. South.

The A. A. Rayner Funeral Home in Chicago received Till's body. Upon arrival, Bradley insisted on viewing it to make a positive identification, later stating that the stench from it was noticeable two blocks away.[83] She decided to have an open-casket funeral, saying: "There was just no way I could describe what was in that box. No way. And I just wanted the world to see."[73] Tens of thousands of people lined the street outside the mortuary to view Till's body, and days later thousands more attended his funeral at Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ.

Till's grave at Burr Oak Cemetery

Photographs of his mutilated corpse circulated around the country, notably appearing in Jet magazine and The Chicago Defender, both black publications, generating intense public reaction. According to The Nation and Newsweek, Chicago's black community was "aroused as it has not been over any similar act in recent history".[84][note 6] Time later selected one of the Jet photographs showing Mamie Till over the mutilated body of her dead son, as one of the 100 "most influential images of all time": "For almost a century, African Americans were lynched with regularity and impunity. Now, thanks to a mother's determination to expose the barbarousness of the crime, the public could no longer pretend to ignore what they couldn't see."[85] Till was buried on September 6 in Burr Oak Cemetery in Alsip, Illinois.[86]

News about Emmett Till spread to both coasts. Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley and Illinois Governor William Stratton also became involved, urging Mississippi Governor White to see that justice was done. The tone in Mississippi newspapers changed dramatically. They falsely reported riots in the funeral home in Chicago. Bryant and Milam appeared in photos smiling and wearing military uniforms,[87] and Carolyn Bryant's beauty and virtue were extolled. Rumors of an invasion of outraged blacks and northern whites were printed throughout the state, and were taken seriously by the Leflore County Sheriff. T. R. M. Howard, a local businessman, surgeon, and civil rights proponent and one of the wealthiest black people in the state, warned of a "second civil war" if "slaughtering of Negroes" was allowed.[88]

Following Roy Wilkins' comments, white opinion began to shift. According to historian Stephen J. Whitfield, a specific brand of xenophobia in the South was particularly strong in Mississippi. Whites were urged to reject the influence of Northern opinion and agitation.[89] This independent attitude was profound enough in Tallahatchie County that it earned the nickname "The Freestate of Tallahatchie", according to a former sheriff, "because people here do what they damn well please", making the county often difficult to govern.[90]

Tallahatchie County Sheriff Clarence Strider, who initially positively identified Till's body and stated that the case against Milam and Bryant was "pretty good", on September 3 announced his doubts that the body pulled from the Tallahatchie River was that of Till. He speculated that the boy was probably still alive. Strider suggested that the recovered body had been planted by the NAACP: a corpse stolen by T. R. M. Howard, who colluded to place Till's ring on it.[91] Strider changed his account after comments were published in the press denigrating the people of Mississippi, later saying: "The last thing I wanted to do was to defend those peckerwoods. But I just had no choice about it."[45][note 7]

Bryant and Milam were indicted for murder. The state's prosecuting attorney, Hamilton Caldwell, was not confident that he could get a conviction in a case of white violence against a black male accused of insulting a white woman. A local black paper was surprised at the indictment and praised the decision, as did The New York Times. The high-profile comments published in Northern newspapers and by the NAACP were of concern to the prosecuting attorney, Gerald Chatham; he worried that his office would not be able to secure a guilty verdict, despite the compelling evidence. Having limited funds, Bryant and Milam initially had difficulty finding attorneys to represent them, but five attorneys at a Sumner law firm offered their services pro bono.[89] Their supporters placed collection jars in stores and other public places in the Delta, eventually gathering $10,000 for the defense.[92]

Trial

The trial was held in the county courthouse in Sumner, the western seat of Tallahatchie County, because Till's body was found in this area. Sumner had one boarding house; the small town was besieged by reporters from all over the country. David Halberstam called the trial "the first great media event of the civil rights movement".[93] A reporter who had covered the trials of Bruno Hauptmann and Machine Gun Kelly remarked that this was the most publicity for any trial he had ever seen.[45] No hotels were open to black visitors. Mamie Till Bradley arrived to testify, and the trial also attracted black congressman Charles Diggs from Michigan. Bradley, Diggs, and several black reporters stayed at T. R. M. Howard's home in Mound Bayou. Located on a large lot and surrounded by Howard's armed guards, it resembled a compound.

The day before the start of the trial, a young black man named Frank Young arrived to tell Howard he knew of two witnesses to the crime. Levi "Too Tight" Collins and Henry Lee Loggins were black employees of Leslie Milam, J. W.'s brother, in whose shed Till was beaten. Collins and Loggins were spotted with J. W. Milam, Bryant, and Till. The prosecution team was unaware of Collins and Loggins. Sheriff Strider, however, booked them into the Charleston, Mississippi, jail to keep them from testifying.[94]

The trial was held in September 1955 and lasted for five days; attendees remembered that the weather was very hot. The courtroom was filled to capacity with 280 spectators; black attendees sat in segregated sections.[95] Press from major national newspapers attended, including black publications; black reporters were required to sit in the segregated black section and away from the white press, farther from the jury. Sheriff Strider welcomed black spectators coming back from lunch with a cheerful, "Hello, Niggers!"[96] Some visitors from the North found the court to be run with surprising informality. Jury members were allowed to drink beer on duty, and many white male spectators wore handguns.[97]

Till's uncle, Mose Wright, identifying J. W. Milam during Milam's trial, an act that "signified intimidation of Delta blacks was no longer as effective as the past".[98] Wright had "crossed a line that no one could remember a black man ever crossing in Mississippi".[99] Photojournalist Ernest Withers defied the judge's orders banning photography during the trial to capture this shot.

The defense sought to cast doubt on the identity of the body pulled from the river. They said it could not be positively identified, and they questioned whether Till was dead at all. The defense also asserted that although Bryant and Milam had taken Till from his great-uncle's house, they had released him that night. The defense attorneys attempted to prove that Mose Wright—who was addressed as "Uncle Mose" by the prosecution and "Mose" by the defense—could not identify Bryant and Milam as the men who took Till from his cabin. They noted that only Milam's flashlight had been in use that night, and no other lights in the house were turned on. Milam and Bryant had identified themselves to Wright the evening they took Till; Wright said he had only seen Milam clearly. Wright's testimony was considered remarkably courageous. It may have been the first time in the South that a black man had testified to the guilt of a white man in court—and lived.[100]

Journalist James Hicks, who worked for the black news wire service, the National Negro Publishers Association (later renamed the National Newspaper Publishers Association), was present in the courtroom; he was especially impressed that Wright stood to identify Milam, pointing to him and saying "There he is",[note 8] calling it a historic moment and one filled with "electricity".[101] A writer for the New York Post noted that following his identification, Wright sat "with a lurch which told better than anything else the cost in strength to him of the thing he had done".[102] A reporter who covered the trial for the New Orleans Times-Picayune said it was "the most dramatic thing I saw in my career".[103]

Mamie Till Bradley testified that she had instructed her son to watch his manners in Mississippi and that should a situation ever come to his being asked to get on his knees to ask forgiveness of a white person, he should do it without a thought. The defense questioned her identification of her son in the casket in Chicago and a $400 life insurance policy she had taken out on him (equivalent to $4,400 in 2022).[104]

While the trial progressed, Leflore County Sheriff George Smith, Howard, and several reporters, both black and white, attempted to locate Collins and Loggins. They could not, but found three witnesses who had seen Collins and Loggins with Milam and Bryant on Leslie Milam's property. Two of them testified that they heard someone being beaten, blows, and cries.[104] One testified so quietly the judge ordered him several times to speak louder; he said he heard the victim call out: "Mama, Lord have mercy. Lord have mercy."[105] Sheriff Strider testified for the defense of his theory that Till was alive and that the body retrieved from the river was white. A doctor from Greenwood stated on the stand that the body was too decomposed to identify, and therefore had been in the water too long for it to be Till.[106]

Carolyn Bryant was allowed to testify in court, but because Judge Curtis Swango ruled in favor of the prosecution's objection that her testimony was irrelevant to Till's abduction and murder, the jury was not present.[106][107][108] In the event that the defendants were convicted, the defense wanted her testimony on record to aid in a possible appeal.[109]

In the concluding statements, one prosecuting attorney said that what Till did was wrong, but that his action warranted a spanking, not murder. Gerald Chatham passionately called for justice and mocked the sheriff and doctor's statements that alluded to a conspiracy. Mamie Bradley indicated she was very impressed with his summation.[110] The defense stated that the prosecution's theory of the events the night Till was murdered was improbable, and said the jury's "forefathers would turn over in their graves" if they convicted Bryant and Milam. Only three outcomes were possible in Mississippi for capital murder: life imprisonment, the death penalty, or acquittal. On September 23 the all-white, all-male jury (both women and blacks had been banned)[111] acquitted both defendants after a 67-minute deliberation; one juror said, "If we hadn't stopped to drink pop, it wouldn't have taken that long."[112][113]

In post-trial analyses, the blame for the outcome varied. Mamie Till Bradley was criticized for not crying enough on the stand. The jury was noted to have been picked almost exclusively from the hill country section of Tallahatchie County, which, due to its poorer economic make-up, found whites and blacks competing for land and other agrarian opportunities. Unlike the population living closer to the river (and thus closer to Bryant and Milam in Leflore County), who possessed a noblesse oblige outlook toward blacks, according to historian Stephen Whitaker, those in the eastern part of the county were virulent in their racism. The prosecution was criticized for dismissing any potential juror who knew Milam or Bryant personally, for fear that such a juror would vote to acquit. Afterward, Whitaker noted that this had been a mistake, as those who knew the defendants usually disliked them.[45][110] One juror voted twice to convict, but on the third discussion, voted with the rest of the jury to acquit.[114] In later interviews, the jurors acknowledged that they knew Bryant and Milam were guilty, but simply did not believe that life imprisonment or the death penalty were fit punishment for whites who had killed a black man.[115] However, two jurors said as late as 2005 that they believed the defense's case. They also said that the prosecution had not proved that Till had died, nor that it was his body that was removed from the river.[114]

In November 1955, a grand jury declined to indict Bryant and Milam for kidnapping, despite their own admissions of having taken Till. Mose Wright and a young man named Willie Reed, who testified to seeing Milam enter the shed from which screams and blows were heard, both testified in front of the grand jury.[116] After the trial, T. R. M. Howard paid the costs of relocating to Chicago for Wright, Reed, and another black witness who testified against Milam and Bryant, in order to protect the three witnesses from reprisals for having testified.[110] Reed, who later changed his name to Willie Louis to avoid being found, continued to live in the Chicago area until his death on July 18, 2013. He avoided publicity and even kept his history secret from his wife until she was told by a relative. Reed began to speak publicly about the case in the PBS documentary The Murder of Emmett Till, aired in 2003.[117]

Media discourse

Newspapers in major international cities as well as religious and socialist publications reported outrage about the verdict and strong criticism of American society, while Southern newspapers, particularly in Mississippi, wrote that the court system had done its job.[118] Till's story continued to make the news for weeks following the trial, sparking debate in newspapers, among the NAACP and various high-profile segregationists about justice for blacks and the propriety of Jim Crow society.[citation needed]

In October 1955, the Jackson Daily News reported facts about Till's father that had been suppressed by the U.S. military. While serving in Italy, Louis Till was court-martialed for the rape of two women and the killing of a third. He was found guilty and executed by hanging by the Army near Pisa in July 1945. Mamie Till Bradley and her family knew none of this, having been told only that Louis had been killed for "willful misconduct". Mississippi senators James Eastland and John C. Stennis probed Army records and revealed Louis Till's crimes. Although Emmett Till's murder trial was over, news about his father was carried on the front pages of Mississippi newspapers for weeks in October and November 1955. This renewed debate about Emmett Till's actions and Carolyn Bryant's integrity. Stephen Whitfield writes that the lack of attention paid to identifying or finding Till is "strange" compared to the amount of published discourse about his father.[119] According to historians Davis Houck and Matthew Grindy, "Louis Till became a most important rhetorical pawn in the high-stakes game of north versus south, black versus white, NAACP versus White Citizens' Councils".[13] In 2016, reviewing the facts of the rapes and murder for which Louis Till had been executed, John Edgar Wideman posited that, given the timing of the publicity about Emmett's father, although the defendants had already confessed to taking Emmett from his uncle's house, the post-murder trial grand jury refused to even indict them for kidnapping.[120][121] Wideman also suggested that the conviction and punishment of Louis Till may have been racially motivated, referring to his trial as a "kangaroo court-martial".[122][123][121][124]

If the facts as stated in the Look magazine account of the Till affair are correct, this remains: two adults, armed, in the dark, kidnap a fourteen-year-old boy and take him away to frighten him. Instead of which, the fourteen-year-old boy not only refuses to be frightened, but unarmed, alone, in the dark, so frightens the two armed adults that they must destroy him ... What are we Mississippians afraid of?

—William Faulkner, "On Fear", 1956[125]

Protected against double jeopardy, Bryant and Milam struck a deal with Look magazine in 1956 to tell their story to journalist William Bradford Huie for between $3,600 and $4,000. The interview took place in the law firm of the attorneys who had defended Bryant and Milam. Huie did not ask the questions; Bryant and Milam's own attorneys did. Neither attorney had heard their clients' accounts of the murder before. According to Huie, the older Milam was more articulate and sure of himself than the younger Bryant. Milam admitted to shooting Till and neither of them believed they were guilty or that they had done anything wrong.[126]

"What else could I do? He thought he was as good as any white man." – J.W. Milam, when asked why he killed Emmett Till

Quote from Milam on why he killed Till. Displayed at the National Civil Rights Museum, Memphis, Tennessee

Reaction to Huie's interview with Bryant and Milam was explosive. Their brazen admission that they had murdered Till caused prominent civil rights leaders to push the federal government harder to investigate the case. Till's murder contributed to congressional passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957: it authorized the U.S. Department of Justice to intervene in local law enforcement issues when individual civil rights were being compromised.[45] Huie's interview, in which Milam and Bryant said they had acted alone, overshadowed inconsistencies in earlier versions of the stories. As a consequence, details about others who had possibly been involved in Till's abduction and murder, or the subsequent cover-up, were forgotten, according to historians David and Linda Beito.[127][note 9]

Later events

Till's murder increased fears in the local black community that they would be subjected to violence and the law would not protect them. According to Deloris Melton Gresham, whose father was killed a few months after Till, "At that time, they used to say that 'it's open season on n*****s.' Kill'em and get away with it."[128]

After Bryant and Milam admitted to Huie that they had killed Till, the support base of the two men eroded in Mississippi.[129] Many of their former friends and supporters, including those who had contributed to their defense funds, cut them off. Blacks boycotted their shops, which went bankrupt and closed, and banks refused to grant them loans to plant crops.[45] After struggling to secure a loan and find someone who would rent to him, Milam managed to secure 217 acres (88 ha) and a $4,000 loan to plant cotton, but blacks refused to work for him. He was forced to pay whites higher wages.[130]

Eventually, Milam and Bryant relocated to Texas, but their infamy followed them; they continued to generate animosity from locals. In 1961, while in Texas, when Bryant recognized the license plate of a Tallahatchie County resident, he called out a greeting and identified himself. The resident, upon hearing the name, drove away without speaking to Bryant.[131] After several years, they returned to Mississippi.[130]

Milam found work as a heavy equipment operator, but ill health forced him into retirement. Over the years, Milam was tried for offenses including assault and battery, writing bad checks, and using a stolen credit card. He died of spinal cancer on December 30, 1980, at the age of 61.[130]

Bryant worked as a welder while in Texas, until increasing blindness forced him to give up this employment. At some point, he and Carolyn divorced; he remarried in 1980. He opened a store in Ruleville, Mississippi. He was convicted in 1984 and 1988 of food stamp fraud. In a 1985 interview, he denied killing Till despite having admitted to it in 1956, but said: "if Emmett Till hadn't got out of line, it probably wouldn't have happened to him." Fearing economic boycotts and retaliation, Bryant lived a private life and refused to be photographed or reveal the exact location of his store, explaining: "this new generation is different and I don't want to worry about a bullet some dark night".[132] He died of cancer on September 1, 1994, at the age of 63.[133]

Till's mother married Gene Mobley, became a teacher, and changed her surname to Till-Mobley. She continued to educate people about her son's murder. In 1992, Till-Mobley had the opportunity to listen while Bryant was interviewed about his involvement in Till's murder. With Bryant unaware that Till-Mobley was listening, he asserted that Till had ruined his life, expressed no remorse, and said: "Emmett Till is dead. I don't know why he can't just stay dead."[134]

In 1996, documentary filmmaker Keith Beauchamp, who was greatly moved by Till's open-casket photograph,[93] started background research for a feature film he planned to make about Till's murder. He asserted that as many as 14 people may have been involved, including Carolyn Bryant Donham (who by this point had remarried). Mose Wright heard someone with "a lighter voice" affirm that Till was the one in his front yard immediately before Bryant and Milam drove away with the boy. Beauchamp spent the next nine years producing The Untold Story of Emmett Louis Till, released in 2003.

That same year, PBS aired an installment of American Experience titled The Murder of Emmett Till. In 2005, CBS journalist Ed Bradley aired a 60 Minutes report investigating the Till murder, part of which showed him tracking down Carolyn Bryant at her home in Greenville, Mississippi.[135]

A 1991 book written by Stephen J. Whitfield, another by Christopher Metress in 2002, and Mamie Till-Mobley's memoirs the next year all posed questions as to who was involved in the murder and cover-up. Federal authorities in the 21st century worked to resolve the questions about the identity of the body pulled from the Tallahatchie River.[136]

In 2004, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) announced that it was reopening the case to determine whether anyone other than Milam and Bryant was involved.[137] David T. Beito, a professor at the University of Alabama, states that Till's murder "has this mythic quality like the Kennedy assassination".[103] The DOJ had undertaken to investigate numerous cold cases dating to the civil rights movement, in the hope of finding new evidence in other murders as well.

The body was exhumed, and the Cook County coroner conducted an autopsy in 2005. Using DNA from Till's relatives, dental comparisons to images taken of Till, and anthropological analysis, the exhumed body was positively identified as that of Till. It had extensive cranial damage, a broken left femur, and two broken wrists. Metallic fragments found in the skull were consistent with bullets being fired from a .45 caliber gun.[138]

In February 2007, a Leflore County grand jury, composed primarily of black jurors and empaneled by Joyce Chiles, a black prosecutor, found no credible basis for Beauchamp's claim that 14 people took part in Till's abduction and murder. Beauchamp was angry with the finding. David Beito and Juan Williams, who worked on the reading materials for the Eyes on the Prize documentary, were critical of Beauchamp for trying to revise history and taking attention away from other cold cases.[139] The grand jury failed to find sufficient cause for charges against Carolyn Bryant Donham. Neither the FBI nor the grand jury found any credible evidence that Henry Lee Loggins, identified by Beauchamp as a suspect who could be charged, had any role in the crime. Other than Loggins, Beauchamp refused to name any of the people he alleged were involved.[103]

Historical markers

For 50 years nobody talked about Emmett Till. I think we just have to be resilient and know there are folks out there that don't want to know this history or who want to erase the history. We are just going to be resilient in continuing to put them back up and be truthful in making make sure that Emmett didn't die in vain.

—Patrick Weems, executive director of the Emmett Till Memorial Commission, speaking in October 2019 at the unveiling of a bulletproof historical marker (the previous three markers at the site having been shot up) near the Tallahatchie River.[140]

The first highway marker remembering Emmett Till, erected in 2006, was defaced with "KKK", and then completely covered with black paint.[141]

In 2007, eight markers were erected at sites associated with Till's lynching. The marker at the "River Spot" where Till's body was found was torn down in 2008, presumably thrown in the river. A replacement sign received more than 100 bullet holes over the next few years.[142] Another replacement was installed in June 2018, and in July it was vandalized by bullets. Three University of Mississippi students were suspended from their fraternity after posing in front of the bullet-riddled marker, with guns, and uploading the photo to Instagram.[143] As stated by reporter Jerry Mitchell, "It is not clear whether the fraternity students shot the sign or are simply posing before it."[143] In 2019, a fourth sign was erected. It is made of steel, weighs 500 pounds (230 kg), is over 1 inch (2.5 cm) thick, and is said by its manufacturer to be indestructible.[144]

Claim that Carolyn Bryant recanted her testimony

In 2017, historian and author Timothy Tyson released details of a 2008 interview with Carolyn Bryant, during which, he alleged, she had disclosed that she had fabricated parts of her testimony at the trial.[109][48][3] According to Tyson's account of the interview, Bryant retracted her testimony that Till had grabbed her around her waist and uttered obscenities, saying "that part's not true".[145][146] The jury did not hear Bryant's testimony at the trial as the judge had ruled it inadmissible, but the court spectators heard. The defense wanted Bryant's testimony as evidence for a possible appeal in case of a conviction.[109][147] In the 2007 interview, the 72-year-old Bryant said she could not remember the rest of the events that occurred between her and Till in the grocery store.[109] Tyson also reported her as saying: "nothing that boy did could ever justify what happened to him".[146] Tyson said that Roy Bryant had been abusive toward Carolyn, and "it was clear she was frightened of her husband". Tyson believed Bryant embellished her testimony under coercive circumstances. Bryant described Milam as "domineering and brutal and not a kind man".[146] An editorial in The New York Times said, regarding Bryant's admission that portions of her testimony were false: "This admission is a reminder of how black lives were sacrificed to white lies in places like Mississippi. It also raises anew the question of why no one was brought to justice in the most notorious racially motivated murder of the 20th century, despite an extensive investigation by the F.B.I."[148]

The New York Times quoted Wheeler Parker, a cousin of Till's, who said: "I was hoping that one day she [Bryant] would admit it, so it matters to me that she did, and it gives me some satisfaction. It's important to people understanding how the word of a white person against a black person was law, and a lot of black people lost their lives because of it. It really speaks to history, it shows what black people went through in those days."[3][149]

However, the 'recanting' claim made by Tyson was not on his tape-recording of the interview. "It is true that that part is not on tape because I was setting up the tape recorder" Tyson said. The support Tyson provided to back up his claim, was a handwritten note that he said had been made at the time.[52]

In a report to Congress in March 2018, the U.S. Department of Justice stated that it was reopening the investigation into Till's death due to new information.[150][151] In December 2021, the DOJ announced that it had closed its investigation in the case.[152][153]

Discovery of unserved arrest warrant

In June 2022, an unserved arrest warrant for Carolyn Bryant (now known as Carolyn Bryant Donham), dated August 29, 1955, and signed by the Leflore County Clerk, was discovered in a courthouse basement by members of the Emmett Till Legacy Foundation. Following the discovery, Till's family called for Donham's arrest.[154][155][156] However, the district attorney declined to charge Donham, and said that there was no new evidence to reopen the case.[157][158][159]

In August 2022, a grand jury concluded there was insufficient evidence to indict Donham.[160]

In December 2022 Bowling Green, Kentucky, cancelled its annual Christmas parade scheduled for December 3, 2022, due to threats of violence against groups who planned to protest outside Donham's home, an apartment at Shive Lane, Bowling Green. The protests took place peacefully.[161]

Release of Carolyn Bryant Donham memoir

Main article: I Am More Than a Wolf Whistle

In 2022, I Am More Than a Wolf Whistle, the 99-page memoir of Carolyn Bryant Donham, was copied and given to NewsOne by an anonymous source. The text had been given to the University of North Carolina to privately hold until 2036.[162]

The memoir had been prepared by Donham's daughter-in-law Marsha Bryant, who had shared the material with Timothy Tyson, with the understanding that Tyson would edit the memoir. However, Tyson said there had been no such agreement, and placed the memoir at the Southern Historical Collection at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill library archives, with access restricted for twenty years or until Donham's death.[52]

Bryant Donham died on April 25, 2023, at the age of 88.[163][164]

Influence on civil rights

Till's case became emblematic of the injustices suffered by blacks in the South.[165] Myrlie Evers, the widow of Medgar Evers, said years later that the case "struck a spark of indignation that ... touched off a world-wide clamor and cast the glare of a world spotlight on Mississippi's racism."[166]

Mamie Till Bradley toured the country in one of the NAACP's most successful fundraising campaigns ever.[167] Journalist Louis Lomax acknowledges Till's death to be the start of what he terms the "Negro revolt", and scholar Clenora Hudson-Weems characterizes Till as a "sacrificial lamb" for civil rights. NAACP operative Amzie Moore considers Till the start of the Civil Rights Movement, at the very least in Mississippi.[168]

The 1987 Emmy award-winning documentary series Eyes on the Prize, begins with the murder of Emmett Till. Accompanying written materials for the series, Eyes on the Prize and Voices of Freedom (for the second time period), exhaustively explore the major figures and events of the Civil Rights Movement. Stephen Whitaker states that, as a result of the attention Till's death and the trial received,

Mississippi became in the eyes of the nation the epitome of racism and the citadel of white supremacy. From this time on, the slightest racial incident anywhere in the state was spotlighted and magnified. To the Negro race throughout the South and to some extent in other parts of the country, this verdict indicated an end to the system of noblesse oblige. The faith in the white power structure waned rapidly. Negro faith in legalism declined, and the revolt officially began on December 1, 1955, with the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott.[45]

I thought of Emmett Till and I just couldn't go back.

—Rosa Parks, on her refusal to move to the back of the bus, launching the Montgomery bus boycott.[166]

In Montgomery a few months after the murder, Rosa Parks attended a rally for Till, led by Martin Luther King Jr.[169] Soon after, she refused to give up her seat on a segregated bus to a white passenger. The incident sparked a year-long well-organized grassroots boycott of the public bus system. The boycott was designed to force the city to change its segregation policies. Parks later said when she did not get up and move to the rear of the bus, "I thought of Emmett Till and I just couldn't go back."[170]

According to author Clayborne Carson, Till's death and the widespread coverage of the students integrating Little Rock Central High School in 1957 were especially profound for younger blacks: "It was out of this festering discontent and an awareness of earlier isolated protests that the sit-ins of the 1960s were born."[171] After seeing pictures of Till's mutilated body, in Louisville, Kentucky, young Cassius Clay (later famed boxer Muhammad Ali) and a friend took out their frustration by vandalizing a local railyard, causing a locomotive engine to derail.[172][173]

In 1963, Sunflower County resident and sharecropper Fannie Lou Hamer was jailed and beaten for attempting to register to vote. The next year, she led a massive voter registration drive in the Delta region, and volunteers worked on Freedom Summer throughout the state. Before 1954, 265 black people were registered to vote in three Delta counties, where they were a majority of the population. At this time, blacks made up 41% of the total state population. The summer Emmett Till was killed, the number of registered voters in those three counties dropped to 90. By the end of 1955, fourteen Mississippi counties had no registered black voters.[174] The Mississippi Freedom Summer of 1964 registered 63,000 black voters in a simplified process administered by the project; they formed their own political party because they were closed out of the Democratic Regulars in Mississippi.[175]

Legacy and honors

Emmett Till Memorial Highway, US 49E, Tutwiler, Mississippi, 2019

- A statue was unveiled in Denver in 1976 (and has since been moved to Pueblo, Colorado) featuring Till with Martin Luther King Jr.

- In 1984, a section of 71st Street in Chicago was named "Emmett Till Road" and in 2005, the 71st street bridge was named in his honor.[176]

- In 1989, Till was included among the forty names of people who had died in the Civil Rights Movement; they are listed as martyrs on the granite sculpture of the Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, Alabama.[177][178]

- A demonstration for Till was held in 2000 in Selma, Alabama, on the 35th anniversary of the march over the Edmund Pettus Bridge. His mother Mamie Till-Mobley attended and later wrote in her memoirs: "I realized that Emmett had achieved the significant impact in death that he had been denied in life. Even so, I had never wanted Emmett to be a martyr. I only wanted him to be a good son. Although I realized all the great things that had been accomplished largely because of the sacrifices made by so many people, I found myself wishing that somehow we could have done it another way."[179]

- In 2005, James McCosh Elementary School in Chicago, where Till had been a student, was renamed the "Emmett Louis Till Math And Science Academy".[180]

- In 2006, the "Emmett Till Memorial Highway" was dedicated between Greenwood and Tutwiler, Mississippi; this was the route his body was taken to the train station, to be returned to his mother for burial in Chicago. It intersects with the H. C. "Clarence" Strider Memorial Highway.[181]

- In 2006, the Emmett Till Memorial Commission was established by the Tallahatchie Board of Supervisors[182]

- In 2007, the Emmett Till Memorial Commission issued a formal apology to Till's family at an event attended by 400 people. It reads:

We the citizens of Tallahatchie County recognize that the Emmett Till case was a terrible miscarriage of justice. We state candidly and with deep regret the failure to effectively pursue justice. We wish to say to the family of Emmett Till that we are profoundly sorry for what was done in this community to your loved one.[183][182]

- The same year, Georgia congressman John Lewis sponsored a bill to provide a plan for investigating and prosecuting unsolved (cold case) Civil Rights-era murders. The Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act was signed into law in 2008.[184]

- In 2008, a memorial plaque that was erected in Tallahatchie County, next to the Tallahatchie River at Graball Landing where Till's body was retrieved, was stolen and never recovered.[185] The plaque was a "frequent target for racist vandalism".[185] The location is in a remote area and down a gravel road, meaning that vandals had to go out of the way to get to it.[185] Its replacement was soon also shot up, as was the replacement sign after that.[186] In October 2019, a new bulletproof sign costing over $10,000, and weighing over 500 pounds (230 kg) was installed.[187][186] In November 2019, a group of white supremacists was caught making a propaganda video in front of the sign raising new concerns that more vandalism was being planned. The group was carrying a white flag with a black St. Andrews cross, a flag commonly used by a racist Neo-Confederate group called the League of the South. The group quickly scattered when they set off alarms designed to protect the sign.[188][189]

- The Tallahatchie County Courthouse in Sumner, site of the 1955 trial of Till's killers, was restored and re-opened in 2012. The Emmett Till Interpretive Center opened across the street and is also serving as a community center.[182]

- The Emmett Till Memorial Project is an associated website and smartphone app to commemorate Till's death and his life. It identifies 51 sites in the Mississippi Delta associated with him.[182] On August 29, 2015, the Center held a 60th anniversary event.[190][191]

- In 2015, Florida State University Libraries created the Emmett Till archives.[192][193]

- In 2020, the National Trust for Historic Preservation named Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ, the site of Till's funeral, as one of America's most endangered historic places.[4]

- In 2022, the U.S. Senate voted to award Emmett Till and his mother, Mamie Till-Mobley, the Congressional Gold Medal, forwarding the measure for concurrent action in the U.S. House of Representatives.[194][195] The House passed the measure on December 21, 2022.[196]

- In March 2022, Congress passed the Emmett Till Antilynching Act.

- In October 2022, a bronze statue commemorating Till was unveiled in Greenwood, Mississippi's Rail Spike Park, partially funded by the State of Mississippi.[197]

Casket

The story of Emmett Till is one of the most important of the last half of the 20th century. And an important element was the casket ... It is an object that allows us to tell the story, to feel the pain and understand loss. I want people to feel like I did. I want people to feel the complexity of emotions.

—Lonnie Bunch III, director of the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture[198]

During a renewed investigation of the crime in 2005, the Department of Justice exhumed Till's remains to conduct an autopsy and DNA analysis which confirmed the identification of his body. As required by state reburial law, Till was reinterred in a new casket later that year.[199] In 2009, his original glass-topped casket was found, rusting in a dilapidated storage shed at the cemetery.[200] The casket was discolored and the interior fabric torn. It bore evidence that animals had been living in it, although its glass top was still intact. The Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington, D.C. acquired the casket a month later.[198]

Representation in culture

Langston Hughes dedicated an untitled poem (eventually to be known as "Mississippi—1955") to Till in his October 1, 1955, column in The Chicago Defender. It was reprinted across the country and continued to be republished with various changes from different writers.[201] William Faulkner, a prominent white Mississippi native who often focused on racial issues, wrote two essays on Till: one before the trial in which he pleaded for American unity and one after, a piece titled "On Fear" that was published in Harper's in 1956. In it he questioned why the tenets of segregation were based on irrational reasoning.[125]

Till's murder was the focus of a 1957 television episode for the U.S. Steel Hour titled "Noon on Doomsday" written by Rod Serling. He was fascinated by how quickly Mississippi whites supported Bryant and Milam. Although the script was rewritten to avoid mention of Till, and did not say that the murder victim was black, White Citizens' Councils vowed to boycott U.S. Steel. The eventual episode bore little resemblance to the Till case.[202]

Gwendolyn Brooks wrote a poem titled "A Bronzeville Mother Loiters in Mississippi. Meanwhile, A Mississippi Mother Burns Bacon" (1960).[203] The same year Harper Lee published To Kill a Mockingbird, in which a white attorney is committed to defending a black man named Tom Robinson, accused of raping a white woman. Lee, whose novel had a profound effect on civil rights, never commented on why she wrote about Robinson. Literature professor Patrick Chura noted several similarities between Till's case and that of Robinson.[204] Writer James Baldwin loosely based his 1964 drama Blues for Mister Charlie on the Till case. He later divulged that Till's murder had been bothering him for several years.[205]

Anne Moody mentioned the Till case in her autobiography, Coming of Age in Mississippi, in which she states she first learned to hate during the fall of 1955.[206][207] Audre Lorde's poem "Afterimages" (1981) focuses on the perspective of a black woman thinking of Carolyn Bryant 24 years after the murder and trial. Bebe Moore Campbell's 1992 novel Your Blues Ain't Like Mine centers on the events of Till's death. Toni Morrison mentions Till's death in the novel Song of Solomon (1977) and later wrote the play Dreaming Emmett (1986), which follows Till's life and the aftermath of his death.[208] The play is a feminist look at the roles of men and women in black society, which she was inspired to write while considering "time through the eyes of one person who could come back to life and seek vengeance".[209] Emmylou Harris includes a song called "My Name is Emmett Till" on her 2011 album, Hard Bargain. According to scholar Christopher Metress, Till is often reconfigured in literature as a specter that haunts the white people of Mississippi, causing them to question their involvement in evil, or silence about injustice.[205] The 2002 book Mississippi Trials, 1955 is a fictionalized account of Till's death. The 2015 song by Janelle Monáe, "Hell You Talmbout", invokes the names of African-American people—including Emmett Till—who died as a result of encounters with law enforcement or racial violence. In 2016 artist Dana Schutz painted Open Casket, a work based on photographs of Till in his coffin as well as on an account by Till's mother of seeing him after his death.[210]

Documentaries

- The Murder and the Movement: The Story of the Murder of Emmett Till (1985) by Rich Samuel and produced by Anna Vasser (originally aired on WMAQ-TV in Chicago)[211]

- The Murder of Emmett Till which aired during Season 15 of the TV series American Experience: website links to program transcript and additional materials for the PBS film[212]

- The Untold Story of Emmett Louis Till (2005) by Keith Beauchamp[213]

- Eyes on the Prize: Transcript of 2006 PBS documentary[214]

Books, plays, and other works inspired by Till

This section includes creative works inspired by Till. For non-fiction books on Till, see Bibliography, below.

Songs

- "The Death of Emmett Till", (1955) written by A. C. Bilbrew, recorded by The Ramparts with Scatman Crothers[215]

- "The Ballad of Emmett Till" (1956), recorded by Red River Dave (David McEnery), in the TNT label's True Story Series[216]

- "My Name is Emmett Till", (2013) from Hard Bargain, the twenty-sixth studio album by Emmylou Harris.

- "Too Many Martyrs" (1964) by Phil Ochs, mentions and eulogizes Till[217]

- "The Death of Emmett Till" (1962), also known as "The Ballad of Emmett Till", by Bob Dylan

- "Emmett's Ghost" written and recorded by American blues singer Eric Bibb.[218]

Other

- Poem: "Emmett Till" (1991) by James Emanuel

- Wolf Whistle (1993) by Lewis Nordan[219]

- Juvenile fiction: Mississippi Trial, 1955 (2003) by Chris Crowe[220]

- Drama: The State of Mississippi and the Face of Emmett Till (2005) by David Barr

- Poem: "A Wreath for Emmett Till" (2005) by Marilyn Nelson

- The Sacred Place (2007) by Daniel Black[221]

- Musical: The Ballad of Emmett Till (2008) by Ifa Bayeza[222]

- Drama: Anne and Emmett (2009) by Janet Langhart. An imaginary conversation between Till and Anne Frank, both killed as young teenagers because of racial persecution, the play features recorded narration by Morgan Freeman.[223]

- Gathering of Waters (2012) by Bernice L. McFadden[224]

- Painting: Emmett Till: How She Sent Him and How She Got Him Back (2012) by Lisa Whittington, on display at the Mississippi Civil Rights Museum

- Film: Ava DuVernay was commissioned by the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture to create a film which debuted at the museum's opening on September 24, 2016. This film, August 28: A Day in the Life of a People (2016), tells of six significant events in African-American history that happened on the same date, August 28. Events depicted include (among others) Till's lynching.[225]

- Film: My Nephew Emmett dramatizes Till's uncle Mose Wright waiting for Till's killers. The film was nominated for the Oscar for best live action short, 2018.[226]

- Ghost Boys (2018) by Jewell Parker Rhodes[227]

- Television series: HBO's science-fiction horror series Lovecraft Country features a version of Till, portrayed by Rhyan Hill, as a recurring character who appears in 2 episodes. The episode "Jig-A-Bobo" recreates Till's funeral in Chicago.[228]

- Television series: Women of the Movement (2022).

- Film: Till (2022) film based on the life of Emmett's mother Mamie Till-Bradley, as educator and activist after his murder.

Gallery

- Emmett Till Historic Intrepid Center housed in the old cotton gin of Glendora, Mississippi.[229]

Emmett Till Historic Intrepid Center housed in the old cotton gin of Glendora, Mississippi.[229]

- Glendora Gin history sign. Here Milam and Bryant got the fan they used to weigh down Till's body, to sink it in the Tallahatchie River.

Glendora Gin history sign. Here Milam and Bryant got the fan they used to weigh down Till's body, to sink it in the Tallahatchie River.

- Sign identifying the site of Milam's house, near Glendora Gin.

Sign identifying the site of Milam's house, near Glendora Gin.

- Clinton Melton was the victim of a racially motivated killing a few months after Till. Despite eyewitness testimony, his killer, a friend of Milam's, was acquitted by an all-white jury at the same courthouse.[128]

Clinton Melton was the victim of a racially motivated killing a few months after Till. Despite eyewitness testimony, his killer, a friend of Milam's, was acquitted by an all-white jury at the same courthouse.[128]

- The reconstructed Ben Roy Service Station that stood next to the grocery store where Till encountered Bryant in Money, Mississippi,[230] 2019

The reconstructed Ben Roy Service Station that stood next to the grocery store where Till encountered Bryant in Money, Mississippi,[230] 2019

- Bryant's Grocery (2018). By 2018, the store was described as "not much left" and given owner's demands, no preservation occurred.[231]

Bryant's Grocery (2018). By 2018, the store was described as "not much left" and given owner's demands, no preservation occurred.[231]